references.bib

@article{molloy_neonatal_2023,
	title = {Neonatal encephalopathy and hypoxic–ischemic encephalopathy: moving from controversy to consensus definitions and subclassification},
	volume = {94},
	copyright = {2023 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to the International Pediatric Research Foundation, Inc},
	issn = {1530-0447},
	shorttitle = {Neonatal encephalopathy and hypoxic–ischemic encephalopathy},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41390-023-02775-z},
	doi = {10.1038/s41390-023-02775-z},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Pediatric Research},
	author = {Molloy, Eleanor J. and Branagan, Aoife and Hurley, Tim and Quirke, Fiona and Devane, Declan and Taneri, Petek E. and El-Dib, Mohamed and Bloomfield, Frank H. and Maeso, Beccy and Pilon, Betsy and Bonifacio, Sonia L. and Wusthoff, Courtney J. and Chalak, Lina and Bearer, Cynthia and Murray, Deirdre M. and Badawi, Nadia and Campbell, Suzann and Mulkey, Sarah and Gressens, Pierre and Ferriero, Donna M. and de Vries, Linda S. and Walker, Karen and Kay, Sarah and Boylan, Geraldine and Gale, Chris and Robertson, Nicola J. and D’Alton, Mary and Gunn, Alistair and Nelson, Karin B.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2023},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {general, Medicine/Public Health, Pediatric Surgery, Pediatrics},
	pages = {1860--1863},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/VSUR44U8/Molloy et al. - 2023 - Neonatal encephalopathy and hypoxic–ischemic encep.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{quirke_cohesion_2024,
	title = {{COHESION}: a core outcome set for the treatment of neonatal encephalopathy},
	volume = {95},
	copyright = {2023 The Author(s)},
	issn = {1530-0447},
	shorttitle = {{COHESION}},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41390-023-02938-y},
	doi = {10.1038/s41390-023-02938-y},
	abstract = {Heterogeneity in outcomes reported in trials of interventions for the treatment of neonatal encephalopathy (NE) makes evaluating the effectiveness of treatments difficult. Developing a core outcome set for NE treatment would enable researchers to measure and report the same outcomes in future trials. This would minimise waste, ensure relevant outcomes are measured and enable evidence synthesis. Therefore, we aimed to develop a core outcome set for treating NE.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Pediatric Research},
	author = {Quirke, Fiona A. and Ariff, Shabina and Battin, Malcolm R. and Bernard, Caitlin and Biesty, Linda and Bloomfield, Frank H. and Daly, Mandy and Finucane, Elaine and Healy, Patricia and Haas, David M. and Kirkham, Jamie J. and Kibet, Vincent and Koskei, Sarah and Meher, Shireen and Molloy, Eleanor J. and Niaz, Maira and Bhraonáin, Elaine Ní and Okaronon, Christabell Omukagah and Parkes, Matthew J. and Tabassum, Farhana and Walker, Karen and Webbe, James W. H. and Devane, Declan},
	month = mar,
	year = {2024},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {general, Medicine/Public Health, Pediatric Surgery, Pediatrics},
	pages = {922--930},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/DUCFKXY3/Quirke et al. - 2024 - COHESION a core outcome set for the treatment of .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{austin_guidelines_2021,
	title = {Guidelines for {Management} of {Infants} with {Suspected} {Hypoxic} {Ischaemic} {Encephalopathy} ({HIE})},
	url = {https://www.eoeneonatalpccsicnetwork.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/HIE-Guideline.pdf},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {East of England Neonatal Operation Devliery network},
	author = {Austin, Topun and Merchant, Nazakat and Harrington, Lydia},
	month = sep,
	year = {2021},
	file = {James - Neonatal Clinical Oversight Group.pdf:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/V4QINZZB/James - Neonatal Clinical Oversight Group.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@misc{klabunde_ischemia_2023,
	title = {Ischemia and {Hypoxia}},
	url = {https://cvphysiology.com/cad/cad005},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts},
	author = {Klabunde, Richard},
	month = jan,
	year = {2023},
	file = {CV Physiology | Ischemia and Hypoxia:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/RMC5SWA5/cad005.html:text/html},
}

@misc{bliss_hypoxic-ischaemic_nodate,
	title = {Hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy ({HIE})},
	url = {https://www.bliss.org.uk/parents/about-your-baby/medical-conditions/hypoxic-ischaemic-encephalopathy-hie},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Bliss},
	author = {Bliss},
	file = {Hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) | Bliss:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/239WN9J7/hypoxic-ischaemic-encephalopathy-hie.html:text/html},
}

@article{parmentier_magnetic_2022,
	title = {Magnetic {Resonance} {Imaging} in ({Near}-){Term} {Infants} with {Hypoxic}-{Ischemic} {Encephalopathy}},
	volume = {12},
	copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
	issn = {2075-4418},
	url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/12/3/645},
	doi = {10.3390/diagnostics12030645},
	abstract = {Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a major cause of neurological sequelae in (near-)term newborns. Despite the use of therapeutic hypothermia, a significant number of newborns still experience impaired neurodevelopment. Neuroimaging is the standard of care in infants with HIE to determine the timing and nature of the injury, guide further treatment decisions, and predict neurodevelopmental outcomes. Cranial ultrasonography is a helpful noninvasive tool to assess the brain before initiation of hypothermia to look for abnormalities suggestive of HIE mimics or antenatal onset of injury. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which includes diffusion-weighted imaging has, however, become the gold standard to assess brain injury in infants with HIE, and has an excellent prognostic utility. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy provides complementary metabolic information and has also been shown to be a reliable prognostic biomarker. Advanced imaging modalities, including diffusion tensor imaging and arterial spin labeling, are increasingly being used to gain further information about the etiology and prognosis of brain injury. Over the past decades, tremendous progress has been made in the field of neonatal neuroimaging. In this review, the main brain injury patterns of infants with HIE, the application of conventional and advanced MRI techniques in these newborns, and HIE mimics, will be described.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Diagnostics},
	author = {Parmentier, Corline E. J. and de Vries, Linda S. and Groenendaal, Floris},
	month = mar,
	year = {2022},
	note = {Number: 3
Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute},
	keywords = {magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion-weighted imaging, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, neonatal encephalopathy, neonatal neuroimaging, outcome prediction, perinatal asphyxia},
	pages = {645},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/FBD67YI7/Parmentier et al. - 2022 - Magnetic Resonance Imaging in (Near-)Term Infants .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{allen_hypoxic_2011,
	series = {Neuroprotective {Strategies}},
	title = {Hypoxic {Ischemic} {Encephalopathy}: {Pathophysiology} and {Experimental} {Treatments}},
	volume = {11},
	issn = {1527-3369},
	shorttitle = {Hypoxic {Ischemic} {Encephalopathy}},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1527336911001000},
	doi = {10.1053/j.nainr.2011.07.004},
	abstract = {Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a serious birth complication affecting full-term infants; 40\% to 60\% of affected infants die by 2 years old or have severe disabilities. Most underlying pathologic events of HIE are a result of impaired cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery to the brain with resulting primary and secondary energy failures. In the past, treatment options were limited to supportive medical therapy. Currently, several experimental treatments are being explored in neonates and animal models to ameliorate the effects of secondary energy failure. This review discusses the underlying pathophysiologic effects of a hypoxic-ischemic event and experimental treatment modalities being explored to manage infants with HIE. Further research is needed to better understand if the long-term impact of the experimental treatments and whether the combinations of experimental treatments can improve outcomes of infants with HIE.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews},
	author = {Allen, Kimberly A. and Brandon, Debra H.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {Infant, Experimental treatments, Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy},
	pages = {125--133},
	file = {Accepted Version:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/KZ6I2YEY/Allen and Brandon - 2011 - Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy Pathophysiology a.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{torn_outcomes_2023,
	title = {Outcomes in children after mild neonatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy: {A} population-based cohort study},
	volume = {130},
	copyright = {© 2023 The Authors. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology published by John Wiley \& Sons Ltd.},
	issn = {1471-0528},
	shorttitle = {Outcomes in children after mild neonatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1471-0528.17533},
	doi = {10.1111/1471-0528.17533},
	abstract = {Objective To investigate whether mild neonatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) in term born infants is associated with cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental retardation and death up to 6 years of age. Design Population-based cohort study. Setting Sweden, 2009–2015. Population Live term born infants without congenital malformations or chromosomal abnormalities (n = 505 075). Methods Birth and health data were retrieved from Swedish national health and quality registers. Mild HIE was identified by diagnosis in either the Swedish Medical Birth Register or the Swedish Neonatal Quality Register. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) with 95\% confidence intervals (CIs). Main outcome measures A composite of the outcomes cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental retardation and death up to 6 years of age. Results Median follow-up time was 3.3 years after birth. Of 414 infants diagnosed with mild HIE, 17 were classified according to the composite outcome and incidence rates were 12.6 and 2.9 per 1000 child-years in infants with and without HIE respectively. Infants with mild HIE was four times as likely to be diagnosed with the composite outcome (HR 4.42, 95\% CI 2.75–7.12) compared with infants without HIE. When analysed separately, associations were found with cerebral palsy (HR 21.50, 95\% CI 9.59–48.19) and death (HR 19.10, 95\% CI 7.90–46.21). HRs remained essentially unchanged after adjustment for covariates. Conclusions Mild neonatal HIE was associated with neurological morbidity and mortality in childhood. Challenges include identifying infants who may develop morbidity and how to prevent adverse outcomes.},
	language = {en},
	number = {13},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics \& Gynaecology},
	author = {Törn, Anna E. and Hesselman, Susanne and Johansen, Kine and Ågren, Johan and Wikström, Anna-Karin and Jonsson, Maria},
	year = {2023},
	note = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1471-0528.17533},
	keywords = {asphyxia, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental retardation, neonatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy, neurological outcome},
	pages = {1602--1609},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/LR4ZHUMS/Törn et al. - 2023 - Outcomes in children after mild neonatal hypoxic i.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{shim_which_2021,
	title = {Which factors predict outcomes of neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy following therapeutic hypothermia?},
	volume = {64},
	issn = {2713-4148},
	url = {http://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2020.01459},
	doi = {10.3345/cep.2020.01459},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics},
	author = {Shim, Gyu Hong},
	month = apr,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {169--171},
	file = {Full Text:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/YFIDNMCS/Shim - 2021 - Which factors predict outcomes of neonates with hy.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@misc{hie_help_center_hypoxic-ischemic_nodate,
	title = {Hypoxic-{Ischemic} {Encephalopathy} ({HIE}): {Signs} and {Symptoms}},
	url = {https://hiehelpcenter.org/medical/identifying-hie/sign-symptoms/},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {HIE Help Center},
	author = {HIE Help Center},
	file = {Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy (HIE)\: Signs and Symptoms:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/RKZ85JTN/sign-symptoms.html:text/html},
}

@article{gale_brain_2017,
	title = {Brain injury occurring during or soon after birth: a report for the national maternity ambition commissioned by the {Department} of {Health}},
	url = {https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a82446ced915d74e6236ad3/Report_on_brain_injury_occurring_during_or_soon_after_birth.pdf},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Imperial College London},
	author = {Gale, Chris and Stanikov, Eugene and Jawad, Sena and Uthaya, Sabita and Modi, Neena},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	file = {Gale et al. - Brain injury occurring during or soon after birth.pdf:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/8JKYXVX6/Gale et al. - Brain injury occurring during or soon after birth.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{leith_predictive_2024,
	title = {A predictive model for perinatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy using linked maternal and neonatal hospital data},
	volume = {89},
	issn = {1047-2797},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1047279723002247},
	doi = {10.1016/j.annepidem.2023.11.011},
	abstract = {Purpose
To build an evidence-based model to estimate case-specific risk of perinatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy.
Methods
A retrospective, cross-sectional study of all births in Hawaii, Michigan, and New Jersey between 2010 and 2015, using linked maternal labor/delivery and neonatal birth records. Stepwise logistic regression and competitive Akaike information criterion were used to identify the most parsimonious model. Predictive ability of the model was measured with bootstrapped optimism-adjusted area under the ROC curve.
Results
Among 836,216 births there were 376 (0.45 per 1000) cases of hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. The final model included 28 variables, 24 associated with increased risk, and 4 that were protective. The optimism-adjusted area under the ROC curve was 0.84. Estimated risk in the study population ranged from 1 in ∼323,000 to 1 in 2.5. The final model confirmed known risk factors (e.g., sentinel events and shoulder dystocia) and identified novel risk factors, such as maternal race and insurance status.
Conclusion
Our study shows that risk of perinatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy injury can be estimated with high confidence. Our model fills a notable gap in the study of hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy prevention: the estimation of risk, particularly in the United States population which is unique with respect to racial and socioeconomic disparities.},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Annals of Epidemiology},
	author = {Leith, Wendy M. and Zeegers, Maurice P. and Freeman, Michael D.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2024},
	keywords = {Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, Birth injuries, Neonatal health, Risk assessment, Risk factors, Social determinants of health},
	pages = {29--36},
}

@article{odd_hypoxic-ischemic_2017,
	title = {Hypoxic-ischemic brain injury: {Planned} delivery before intrapartum events},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {19345798, 18784429},
	shorttitle = {Hypoxic-ischemic brain injury},
	url = {https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/NPM-16152},
	doi = {10.3233/NPM-16152},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine},
	author = {Odd, David and Heep, Axel and Luyt, Karen and Draycott, Tim},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {347--353},
	file = {Submitted Version:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/BQK3DJXA/Odd et al. - 2017 - Hypoxic-ischemic brain injury Planned delivery be.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{eden_fetal_2017,
	title = {The “{Fetal} {Reserve} {Index}”: {Re}-{Engineering} the {Interpretation} and {Responses} to {Fetal} {Heart} {Rate} {Patterns}},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {1015-3837},
	shorttitle = {The “{Fetal} {Reserve} {Index}”},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1159/000475927},
	doi = {10.1159/000475927},
	abstract = {Objective: Electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) correlates poorly with neonatal outcome. We present a new metric: the “Fetal Reserve Index” (FRI), formally incorporating EFM with maternal, obstetrical, fetal risk factors, and excessive uterine activity for assessment of risk for cerebral palsy (CP). Methods: We performed a retrospective, case-control series of 50 term CP cases with apparent intrapartum neurological injury and 200 controls. All were deemed neurologically normal on admission. We compared the FRI against ACOG Category (I-III) system and long-term outcome parameters against ACOG monograph (NEACP) requirements for labor-induced fetal neurological injury. Results: Abnormal FRI's identified 100\% of CP cases and did so hours before injury. ACOG Category III identified only 44\% and much later. Retrospective ACOG monograph criteria were found in at most 30\% of intrapartum-acquired CP patients; only 27\% had umbilical or neonatal pH \<7.0. Conclusions: In this initial, retrospective trial, an abnormal FRI identified all cases of labor-related neurological injury more reliably and earlier than Category III, which may allow fetal therapy by intrauterine resuscitation. The combination of traditional EFM with maternal, obstetrical, and fetal risk factors creating the FRI performed much better as a screening test than EFM alone. Our quantified screening system needs further evaluation in prospective trials.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2024-04-15},
	journal = {Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy},
	author = {Eden, Robert D. and Evans, Mark I. and Evans, Shara M. and Schifrin, Barry S.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {90--104},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/XL3ZSTL9/Eden et al. - 2017 - The “Fetal Reserve Index” Re-Engineering the Inte.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/LIEGTGPU/The-Fetal-Reserve-Index-Re-Engineering-the.html:text/html},
}

@inproceedings{hartford_deep_2017,
	title = {Deep {IV}: {A} {Flexible} {Approach} for {Counterfactual} {Prediction}},
	shorttitle = {Deep {IV}},
	url = {https://proceedings.mlr.press/v70/hartford17a.html},
	abstract = {Counterfactual prediction requires understanding causal relationships between so-called treatment and outcome variables. This paper provides a recipe for augmenting deep learning methods to accurately characterize such relationships in the presence of instrument variables (IVs) – sources of treatment randomization that are conditionally independent from the outcomes. Our IV specification resolves into two prediction tasks that can be solved with deep neural nets: a first-stage network for treatment prediction and a second-stage network whose loss function involves integration over the conditional treatment distribution. This Deep IV framework allows us to take advantage of off-the-shelf supervised learning techniques to estimate causal effects by adapting the loss function. Experiments show that it outperforms existing machine learning approaches.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2024-04-26},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 34th {International} {Conference} on {Machine} {Learning}},
	publisher = {PMLR},
	author = {Hartford, Jason and Lewis, Greg and Leyton-Brown, Kevin and Taddy, Matt},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	note = {ISSN: 2640-3498},
	pages = {1414--1423},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/6WN5IZY7/Hartford et al. - 2017 - Deep IV A Flexible Approach for Counterfactual Pr.pdf:application/pdf;Supplementary PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/QPQ94ELF/Hartford et al. - 2017 - Deep IV A Flexible Approach for Counterfactual Pr.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{xu_learning_2021,
	title = {Learning {Deep} {Features} in {Instrumental} {Variable} {Regression}},
	url = {https://openreview.net/forum?id=sy4Kg_ZQmS7},
	booktitle = {International {Conference} on {Learning} {Representations}},
	author = {Xu, Liyuan and Chen, Yutian and Srinivasan, Siddarth and Freitas, Nando de and Doucet, Arnaud and Gretton, Arthur},
	year = {2021},
	file = {Full Text:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/ZRULF586/Xu et al. - 2021 - Learning Deep Features in Instrumental Variable Re.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{uffen_retrospective_2021,
	title = {Retrospective study on the possible existence of a treatment paradox in sepsis scores in the emergency department},
	volume = {11},
	copyright = {© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.},
	issn = {2044-6055, 2044-6055},
	url = {https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/3/e046518},
	doi = {10.1136/bmjopen-2020-046518},
	abstract = {Objective The quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) is developed as a tool to identify patients with infection with increased risk of dying from sepsis in non-intensive care unit settings, like the emergency department (ED). An abnormal score may trigger the initiation of appropriate therapy to reduce that risk. This study assesses the risk of a treatment paradox: the effect of a strong predictor for mortality will be reduced if that predictor also acts as a trigger for initiating treatment to prevent mortality.
Design Retrospective analysis on data from a large observational cohort.
Setting ED of a tertiary medical centre in the Netherlands.
Participants 3178 consecutive patients with suspected infection.
Primary outcome To evaluate the existence of a treatment paradox by determining the influence of baseline qSOFA on treatment decisions within the first 24 hours after admission.
Results 226 (7.1\%) had a qSOFA ≥2, of which 51 (22.6\%) died within 30 days. Area under receiver operating characteristics of qSOFA for 30-day mortality was 0.68 (95\% CI 0.61 to 0.75). Patients with a qSOFA ≥2 had higher odds of receiving any form of intensive therapy (OR 11.4 (95\% CI 7.5 to 17.1)), such as aggressive fluid resuscitation (OR 8.8 95\% CI 6.6 to 11.8), fast antibiotic administration (OR 8.5, 95\% CI 5.7 to 12.3) or vasopressic therapy (OR 17.3, 95\% CI 11.2 to 26.8), compared with patients with qSOFA {\textless}2.
Conclusion In ED patients with suspected infection, a qSOFA ≥2 was associated with more intensive treatment. This could lead to inadequate prediction of 30-day mortality due to the presence of a treatment paradox.
Trial registration number 6916.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2024-04-26},
	journal = {BMJ Open},
	author = {Uffen, Jan Willem and Goor, Harriet van and Reitsma, Johannes and Oosterheert, Jan Jelrik and Regt, Marieke de and Kaasjager, Karin},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	pmid = {33707275},
	note = {Publisher: British Medical Journal Publishing Group
Section: Emergency medicine},
	keywords = {accident \& emergency medicine, intensive \& critical care, internal medicine, respiratory infections},
	pages = {e046518},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/8RTB2DVM/Uffen et al. - 2021 - Retrospective study on the possible existence of a.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{costa-ramon_its_2018,
	title = {It's about time: {Cesarean} sections and neonatal health},
	volume = {59},
	issn = {0167-6296},
	shorttitle = {It's about time},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629617307609},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jhealeco.2018.03.004},
	abstract = {Cesarean sections have been associated in the literature with poorer newborn health, particularly with a higher incidence of respiratory morbidity. Most studies suffer, however, from potential omitted variable bias, as they are based on simple comparisons of mothers who give birth vaginally and those who give birth by cesarean section. We try to overcome this limitation and provide credible causal evidence by using variation in the probability of having a c-section that is arguably unrelated to maternal and fetal characteristics: variation by time of day. Previous literature documents that, while nature distributes births and associated problems uniformly, time-dependent variables related to physicians’ demand for leisure are significant predictors of unplanned c-sections. Using a sample of public hospitals in Spain, we show that the rate of c-sections is higher during the early hours of the night compared to the rest of the day, while mothers giving birth at the different times are similar in observable characteristics. This exogenous variation provides us with a new instrument for type of birth: time of delivery. Our results suggest that non-medically indicated c-sections have a negative and significant impact on newborn health, as measured by Apgar scores, but that the effect is not severe enough to translate into more extreme outcomes.},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Journal of Health Economics},
	author = {Costa-Ramón, Ana María and Rodríguez-González, Ana and Serra-Burriel, Miquel and Campillo-Artero, Carlos},
	month = may,
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {Cesarean section, Instrumental variables, Neonatal health, Time variation},
	pages = {46--59},
	file = {Full Text:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/38BIVZ3I/Costa-Ramón et al. - 2018 - It's about time Cesarean sections and neonatal he.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/77FL2CUU/S0167629617307609.html:text/html},
}

@article{helenius_association_2019,
	title = {Association of early postnatal transfer and birth outside a tertiary hospital with mortality and severe brain injury in extremely preterm infants: observational cohort study with propensity score matching},
	volume = {367},
	copyright = {Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions. This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt and build upon this work, for commercial use, provided the original work is properly cited. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.},
	issn = {0959-8138, 1756-1833},
	shorttitle = {Association of early postnatal transfer and birth outside a tertiary hospital with mortality and severe brain injury in extremely preterm infants},
	url = {https://www.bmj.com/content/367/bmj.l5678},
	doi = {10.1136/bmj.l5678},
	abstract = {Objective To determine if postnatal transfer or birth in a non-tertiary hospital is associated with adverse outcomes.
Design Observational cohort study with propensity score matching.
Setting National health service neonatal care in England; population data held in the National Neonatal Research Database.
Participants Extremely preterm infants born at less than 28 gestational weeks between 2008 and 2015 (n=17 577) grouped based on birth hospital and transfer within 48 hours of birth: upward transfer (non-tertiary to tertiary hospital, n=2158), non-tertiary care (born in non-tertiary hospital; not transferred, n=2668), and controls (born in tertiary hospital; not transferred, n=10 866). Infants were matched on propensity scores and predefined background variables to form subgroups with near identical distributions of confounders. Infants transferred between tertiary hospitals (horizontal transfer) were separately matched to controls in a 1:5 ratio.
Main outcome measures Death, severe brain injury, and survival without severe brain injury.
Results 2181 infants, 727 from each group (upward transfer, non-tertiary care, and control) were well matched. Compared with controls, infants in the upward transfer group had no significant difference in the odds of death before discharge (odds ratio 1.22, 95\% confidence interval 0.92 to 1.61) but significantly higher odds of severe brain injury (2.32, 1.78 to 3.06; number needed to treat (NNT) 8) and significantly lower odds of survival without severe brain injury (0.60, 0.47 to 0.76; NNT 9). Compared with controls, infants in the non-tertiary care group had significantly higher odds of death (1.34, 1.02 to 1.77; NNT 20) but no significant difference in the odds of severe brain injury (0.95, 0.70 to 1.30) or survival without severe brain injury (0.82, 0.64 to 1.05). Compared with infants in the upward transfer group, infants in the non-tertiary care group had no significant difference in death before discharge (1.10, 0.84 to 1.44) but significantly lower odds of severe brain injury (0.41, 0.31 to 0.53; NNT 8) and significantly higher odds of survival without severe brain injury (1.37, 1.09 to 1.73; NNT 14). No significant differences were found in outcomes between the horizontal transfer group (n=305) and controls (n=1525).
Conclusions In extremely preterm infants, birth in a non-tertiary hospital and transfer within 48 hours are associated with poor outcomes when compared with birth in a tertiary setting. We recommend perinatal services promote pathways that facilitate delivery of extremely preterm infants in tertiary hospitals in preference to postnatal transfer.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {BMJ},
	author = {Helenius, Kjell and Longford, Nicholas and Lehtonen, Liisa and Modi, Neena and Gale, Chris},
	month = oct,
	year = {2019},
	pmid = {31619384},
	note = {Publisher: British Medical Journal Publishing Group
Section: Research},
	pages = {l5678},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/GSMVQ8EL/Helenius et al. - 2019 - Association of early postnatal transfer and birth .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{badurdeen_early_2024,
	title = {Early {Hyperoxemia} and 2-year {Outcomes} in {Infants} with {Hypoxic}-ischemic {Encephalopathy}: {A} {Secondary} {Analysis} of the {Infant} {Cooling} {Evaluation} {Trial}},
	volume = {267},
	issn = {0022-3476},
	shorttitle = {Early {Hyperoxemia} and 2-year {Outcomes} in {Infants} with {Hypoxic}-ischemic {Encephalopathy}},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022347624000052},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.113902},
	abstract = {Objective
To determine the causal relationship between exposure to early hyperoxemia and death or major disability in infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE).
Study design
We analyzed data from the Infant Cooling Evaluation (ICE) trial that enrolled newborns ≥35 weeks' gestation with moderate-severe HIE, randomly allocated to hypothermia or normothermia. The primary outcome was death or major sensorineural disability at 2 years. We included infants with arterial pO2 measured within 2 hours of birth. Using a directed acyclic graph, we established that markers of severity of perinatal hypoxia-ischemia and pCO2 were a minimally sufficient set of variables for adjustment in a regression model to estimate the causal relationship between arterial pO2 and death/disability.
Results
Among 221 infants, 116 (56\%) had arterial pO2 and primary outcome data. The unadjusted analysis revealed a U-shaped relationship between arterial pO2 and death or major disability. Among hyperoxemic infants (pO2 100-500 mmHg) the proportion with death or major disability was 40/58 (0.69), while the proportion in normoxemic infants (pO2 40-99 mmHg) was 20/48 (0.42). In the adjusted model, hyperoxemia increased the risk of death or major disability (adjusted risk ratio 1.61, 95\% CI 1.07-2.00, P = .03) in relation to normoxemia.
Conclusion
Early hyperoxemia increased the risk of death or major disability among infants who had an early arterial pO2 in the ICE trial. Limitations include the possibility of residual confounding and other causal biases. Further work is warranted to confirm this relationship in the era of routine therapeutic hypothermia.},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {The Journal of Pediatrics},
	author = {Badurdeen, Shiraz and Cheong, Jeanie L. Y. and Donath, Susan and Graham, Hamish and Hooper, Stuart B. and Polglase, Graeme R. and Jacobs, Sue and Davis, Peter G.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2024},
	keywords = {causal inference, disability, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, oxygen, survival},
	pages = {113902},
	file = {ScienceDirect Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/NS5NPGGF/S0022347624000052.html:text/html},
}

@article{costa-ramon_long-run_2022,
	title = {The {Long}-{Run} {Effects} of {Cesarean} {Sections}},
	volume = {57},
	copyright = {© 2022 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. This open access article is distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0) and is freely available online at: http://jhr.uwpress.org},
	issn = {0022-166X, 1548-8004},
	url = {https://jhr.uwpress.org/content/57/6/2048},
	doi = {10.3368/jhr.58.2.0719-10334R1},
	abstract = {We analyze the long-term effects of potentially avoidable cesarean sections on children’s health. Using Finnish administrative data, we document that physicians perform more unplanned C-sections during their regular working hours on days that precede a weekend or public holiday and use this exogenous variation as an instrument for C-sections. We supplement our instrumental variables results with a differences-in-differences estimation strategy that exploits variation in birth mode within sibling pairs and across families. Our results suggest that avoidable, unplanned C-sections increase the risk of asthma, but do not affect other immune-mediated disorders previously associated with C-sections.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Journal of Human Resources},
	author = {Costa-Ramón, Ana and Kortelainen, Mika and Rodríguez-González, Ana and Sääksvuori, Lauri},
	month = nov,
	year = {2022},
	note = {Publisher: University of Wisconsin Press
Section: Articles},
	keywords = {I12, J10, J13},
	pages = {2048--2085},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/GJLSHDYL/Costa-Ramón et al. - 2022 - The Long-Run Effects of Cesarean Sections.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{halla_cutting_2020,
	title = {Cutting fertility? {Effects} of cesarean deliveries on subsequent fertility and maternal labor supply},
	volume = {72},
	issn = {0167-6296},
	shorttitle = {Cutting fertility?},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629619303571},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jhealeco.2020.102325},
	abstract = {Despite the growing incidence of cesarean deliveries (CDs), procedure costs and benefits continue to be controversially discussed. In this study, we identify the effects of CDs on subsequent fertility and maternal labor supply by exploiting the fact that obstetricians are less likely to undertake CDs on weekends and public holidays and have a greater incentive to perform them on Fridays and days preceding public holidays. To do so, we adopt high-quality administrative data from Austria. Women giving birth on different days of the week are pre-treatment observationally identical. Our instrumental variable estimates show that a non-planned CD at parity 0 decreases lifecycle fertility by almost 13.6\%. This reduction in fertility translates into a temporary increase in maternal employment.},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Journal of Health Economics},
	author = {Halla, Martin and Mayr, Harald and Pruckner, Gerald J. and García-Gómez, Pilar},
	month = jul,
	year = {2020},
	keywords = {Cesarean delivery, Cesarean section, Female labor supply, Fertility},
	pages = {102325},
	file = {ScienceDirect Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/N2CHXHNX/S0167629619303571.html:text/html},
}

@article{ladeira_caesarean_2021,
	title = {Caesarean delivery and early childhood caries: {Estimation} with marginal structural models in {Brazilian} pre-schoolers},
	volume = {49},
	copyright = {© 2021 John Wiley \& Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley \& Sons Ltd},
	issn = {1600-0528},
	shorttitle = {Caesarean delivery and early childhood caries},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdoe.12634},
	doi = {10.1111/cdoe.12634},
	abstract = {Objective This study analysed the association between caesarean section and early childhood caries (ECC), estimating the effects using regression and causal inference models. Methods This was a historical cohort study of 697 mother-child dyads, conducted in São Luís, Brazil. The caesarean section was the exposure, and the severity of ECC (dmft) was the outcome. Covariates household income, maternal schooling, maternal hypertension, maternal obesity and birth weight were adjusted for in the models. The effects were estimated by Poisson regression (Means Ratio-MR) and causal inference using a marginal structural model (MSM) (MR and Average Treatment Effect-ATE coefficients), weighted by the inverse probability (IPW) of exposure. Results Caesarean section was protective against caries in the bivariate (MR 0.81; CI 0.70-0.94; P = 0.005) and multivariate (MR 0.78; CI 0.67-0.91; P = 0.002) models. In MSM analyses, the caesarean section had no effect on ECC (ATE = −0.35; P = 0.107), controlling for IPW of exposure. Conclusion The apparent association between caesarean section and ECC severity seems spurious, as it did not persist after employing a superior approach to estimating causality.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology},
	author = {Ladeira, Lorena Lúcia Costa and Martins, Sarah Pereira and Costa, Cayara Mattos and Costa, Elizabeth Lima and da Silva, Rubenice Amaral and Fraiz, Fabian Calixto and Ribeiro, Cecilia Claudia Costa},
	year = {2021},
	note = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/cdoe.12634},
	keywords = {delivery type, early childhood caries, marginal structural models},
	pages = {602--608},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/MN9VZS9S/Ladeira et al. - 2021 - Caesarean delivery and early childhood caries Est.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/IACIDXR5/cdoe.html:text/html},
}

@article{pyykonen_propensity_2018,
	title = {Propensity score method for analyzing the effect of labor induction in prolonged pregnancy},
	volume = {97},
	copyright = {© 2017 Nordic Federation of Societies of Obstetrics and Gynecology},
	issn = {1600-0412},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aogs.13214},
	doi = {10.1111/aogs.13214},
	abstract = {Introduction There is an ongoing debate on the optimal time of labor induction to reduce the risks associated with prolonged pregnancy. Material and methods Registry-based study of 212 716 term, singleton cephalic deliveries between 2006 and 2012 in Finland comparing the outcomes of labor induction with those of expectant management in five, three-day gestational age periods between 40 and 42 weeks (group 1: 40+0–40+2; group 2: 40+3–40+5; group 3: 40+6–41+1; group 4: 41+2–41+4; group 5: 41+5–42+0). Using Poisson regression, induced deliveries in each of the gestational age periods were compared with all ongoing pregnancies. Propensity score matching was applied to reduce confounding by indication. Results In the gestational age groups 1 and 2, labor induction significantly decreased the risk of meconium aspiration syndrome [relative risk (RR) 0.40, 95\% confidence interval (CI) 0.18–0.91 (group 1), RR 0.44, 95\% CI 0.21–0.91 (group 2)] but increased the risk for prolonged hospitalization of a neonate [RR 1.30, 95\% CI 1.10-1.54 (group 1) and RR 1.23, 95\% CI 1.03–1.47 (group 2)]. In groups 3 and 4, labor induction significantly increased the risk for emergency cesarean section [RR 1.17, 95\% CI 1.06–1.28 (group 3) and RR 1.19, 95\% CI 1.09–1.29 (group 4)] but still reduced the risk for meconium aspiration syndrome. In group 5, labor induction did not affect the risk for any of the studied outcomes (operative delivery, obstetric trauma, neonatal mortality, respirator treatment, Apgar {\textless}7). Conclusions Propensity score matching is a novel approach to studying the effect of labor induction. It highlighted the conflicting maternal and neonatal risks and benefits of the intervention, and supported expectant management as a valid option, at least until close to 42 weeks.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica},
	author = {Pyykönen, Aura and Tapper, Anna-Maija and Gissler, Mika and Haukka, Jari and Petäjä, Jari and Lehtonen, Lasse},
	year = {2018},
	note = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/aogs.13214},
	keywords = {delivery, emergency cesarean section, Labor induction, late-term, obstetric treatment policy, post-term, propensity score, quality of care},
	pages = {445--453},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/R6M3KWYI/Pyykönen et al. - 2018 - Propensity score method for analyzing the effect o.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/7MW6TMB7/aogs.html:text/html},
}

@article{tonei_mothers_2019,
	title = {Mother’s mental health after childbirth: {Does} the delivery method matter?},
	volume = {63},
	issn = {0167-6296},
	shorttitle = {Mother’s mental health after childbirth},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629617308937},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jhealeco.2018.11.006},
	abstract = {The dramatic increase in the utilization of caesarean section has raised concerns on its impact on public expenditure and health. While the financial costs associated with this surgical procedure are well recognized, less is known on the intangible health costs borne by mothers and their families. We contribute to the debate by investigating the effect of unplanned caesarean deliveries on mothers’ mental health in the first nine months after the delivery. Differently from previous studies, we account for the unobserved heterogeneity due to the fact that mothers who give birth through an unplanned caesarean delivery may be different than mothers who give birth with a natural delivery. Identification is achieved exploiting exogenous variation in the position of the baby in the womb at the time of delivery while controlling for hospital unobserved factors. We find that mothers having an unplanned caesarean section are at higher risk of developing postnatal depression and this result is robust to alternative specifications.},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Journal of Health Economics},
	author = {Tonei, Valentina},
	month = jan,
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {Caesarean section, Instrumental variables, Maternal health, Millennium Cohort Study, Postnatal depression},
	pages = {182--196},
	file = {Accepted Version:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/5EMSPNXQ/Tonei - 2019 - Mother’s mental health after childbirth Does the .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@misc{card_health_2018,
	type = {Working {Paper}},
	series = {Working {Paper} {Series}},
	title = {The {Health} {Effects} of {Cesarean} {Delivery} for {Low}-{Risk} {First} {Births}},
	url = {https://www.nber.org/papers/w24493},
	doi = {10.3386/w24493},
	abstract = {Cesarean delivery for low-risk pregnancies is generally associated with worse health outcomes for infants and mothers. The interpretation of this correlation, however, is confounded by potential selectivity in the choice of birth mode. We use birth records from California, merged with hospital and emergency department (ED) visits for infants and mothers in the year after birth, to study the causal health effects of cesarean delivery for low-risk first births. Building on McClellan, McNeil, and Newhouse (1994), we use the relative distance from a mother’s home to hospitals with high and low c-section rates as an instrument for c-section. We show that relative distance is a strong predictor of c-section but is orthogonal to many observed risk factors, including birth weight and indicators of prenatal care. Our IV estimates imply that cesarean delivery causes a relatively large increase in ED visits of the infant, mainly due to acute respiratory conditions. We find no significant effects on mothers’ hospitalizations or ED use after birth, or on subsequent fertility, but we find a ripple effect on second birth outcomes arising from the high likelihood of repeat c-section. Offsetting these morbidity effects, we find that delivery at a high c-section hospital leads to a significant reduction in infant mortality, driven by lower death rates for newborns with high rates of pre-determined risk factors.},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	publisher = {National Bureau of Economic Research},
	author = {Card, David and Fenizia, Alessandra and Silver, David},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/DUBY92SG/Card et al. - 2018 - The Health Effects of Cesarean Delivery for Low-Ri.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{jensen_can_2015,
	title = {Can {Caesarean} section improve child and maternal health? {The} case of breech babies},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {0167-6296},
	shorttitle = {Can {Caesarean} section improve child and maternal health?},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629614000964},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jhealeco.2014.07.004},
	abstract = {This paper examines the health effects of Caesarean section (CS) for children and their mothers. We use exogenous variation in the probability of CS in a fuzzy regression discontinuity design. Using administrative Danish data, we exploit an information shock for obstetricians that sharply altered CS rates for breech babies. We find that CS decreases the child's probability of having a low APGAR score and the number of family doctor visits in the first year of life. We find no significant effects for severe neonatal morbidity or hospitalizations. While mothers are hospitalized longer after birth, we find no effects of CS for maternal post-birth complications or infections. Although the change in mode of delivery for the marginal breech babies increases direct costs, the health benefits show that CS is the safest option for these children.},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Journal of Health Economics},
	author = {Jensen, Vibeke Myrup and Wüst, Miriam},
	month = jan,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Caesarean section, Child health, Maternal health, Procedure use, Regression discontinuity design},
	pages = {289--302},
	file = {ScienceDirect Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/K7NZ8R7K/S0167629614000964.html:text/html},
}

@article{chen_causal_2022,
	title = {The causal effect of delivery volume on severe maternal morbidity: an instrumental variable analysis in {Sichuan}, {China}},
	volume = {7},
	copyright = {© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made. See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.},
	issn = {2059-7908},
	shorttitle = {The causal effect of delivery volume on severe maternal morbidity},
	url = {https://gh.bmj.com/content/7/5/e008428},
	doi = {10.1136/bmjgh-2022-008428},
	abstract = {Objective Findings regarding the association between delivery volume and maternal health outcomes are mixed, most of which explored their correlation. This study aims to demonstrate the causal effect of delivery volume on severe maternal morbidity (SMM) in China.
Methods We analysed all women giving birth in the densely populated Sichuan province with 83 million residents in China, during the fourth quarters of each of 4 years (from 2016 to 2019). The routinely collected discharge data, the health institutional annual report data and road network data were used for analysis. The maternal health outcome was measured by SMM. Instrumental variable (IV) methods were applied for estimation, while the surrounding average number of delivery cases per institution was used as the instrument.
Results The study included 4545 institution-years of data from 1456 distinct institutions with delivery services, reflecting 810 049 associated delivery cases. The average SMM rate was approximately 33.08 per 1000 deliveries during 2016 and 2019. More than 86\% of delivery services were provided by a third of the institutions with the highest delivery volume (≥143 delivery cases quarterly). In contrast, less than 2\% of delivery services were offered by a third of the institutions with the lowest delivery volume ({\textless}19 delivery cases quarterly). After adjusting the confounders in the IV-logistic models, the average marginal effect of per 1000 cases in delivery volume was −0.162 (95\% CI −0.169 to –0.155), while the adjusted OR of delivery volume was 0.005 (95\% CI 0.004 to 0.006).
Conclusion Increased delivery volume has great potential to improve maternal health outcomes, while the centralisation of delivery services might facilitate maternal health promotion in China. Our study also provides implications for other developing countries confronted with similar challenges to China.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {BMJ Global Health},
	author = {Chen, Nan and Pan, Jay},
	month = may,
	year = {2022},
	pmid = {35537760},
	note = {Publisher: BMJ Specialist Journals
Section: Original research},
	keywords = {Health policy, Maternal health, Obstetrics},
	pages = {e008428},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/FBIYGURC/Chen and Pan - 2022 - The causal effect of delivery volume on severe mat.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dawe_cesarean_2017,
	title = {Cesarean delivery rates among family physicians versus obstetricians: a population-based cohort study using instrumental variable methods},
	volume = {5},
	copyright = {Copyright 2017, Joule Inc. or its licensors},
	issn = {2291-0026},
	shorttitle = {Cesarean delivery rates among family physicians versus obstetricians},
	url = {https://www.cmajopen.ca/content/5/4/E823},
	doi = {10.9778/cmajo.20170081},
	abstract = {Background: Previous research suggests that family physicians have rates of cesarean delivery that are lower than or equivalent to those for obstetricians, but adjustments for risk differences in these analyses may have been inadequate. We used an econometric method to adjust for observed and unobserved factors affecting the risk of cesarean delivery among women attended by family physicians versus obstetricians.
Methods: This retrospective population-based cohort study included all Canadian (except Quebec) hospital deliveries by family physicians and obstetricians between Apr. 1, 2006, and Mar. 31, 2009. We excluded women with multiple gestations, and newborns with a birth weight less than 500 g or gestational age less than 20 weeks. We estimated the relative risk of cesarean delivery using instrumental-variable-adjusted and logistic regression.
Results: The final cohort included 776 299 women who gave birth in 390 hospitals. The risk of cesarean delivery was 27.3\%, and the mean proportion of deliveries by family physicians was 26.9\% (standard deviation 23.8\%). The relative risk of cesarean delivery for family physicians versus obstetricians was 0.48 (95\% confidence interval [CI] 0.41-0.56) with logistic regression and 1.27 (95\% CI 1.02-1.57) with instrumental-variable-adjusted regression.
Interpretation: Our conventional analyses suggest that family physicians have a lower rate of cesarean delivery than obstetricians, but instrumental variable analyses suggest the opposite. Because instrumental variable methods adjust for unmeasured factors and traditional methods do not, the large discrepancy between these estimates of risk suggests that clinical and/or sociocultural factors affecting the decision to perform cesarean delivery may not be accounted for in our database.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Canadian Medical Association Open Access Journal},
	author = {Dawe, Russell Eric and Bishop, Jessica and Pendergast, Amanda and Avery, Susan and Monaghan, Kelly and Duggan, Norah and Aubrey-Bassler, Kris},
	month = dec,
	year = {2017},
	pmid = {29233843},
	note = {Publisher: Canadian Medical Association Open Access Journal
Section: Research},
	pages = {E823--E829},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/TKCX5MQK/Dawe et al. - 2017 - Cesarean delivery rates among family physicians ve.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{badurdeen_early_2024-1,
	title = {Early {Hyperoxemia} and 2-year {Outcomes} in {Infants} with {Hypoxic}-ischemic {Encephalopathy}: {A} {Secondary} {Analysis} of the {Infant} {Cooling} {Evaluation} {Trial}},
	volume = {267},
	issn = {0022-3476},
	shorttitle = {Early {Hyperoxemia} and 2-year {Outcomes} in {Infants} with {Hypoxic}-ischemic {Encephalopathy}},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022347624000052},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.113902},
	abstract = {Objective
To determine the causal relationship between exposure to early hyperoxemia and death or major disability in infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE).
Study design
We analyzed data from the Infant Cooling Evaluation (ICE) trial that enrolled newborns ≥35 weeks' gestation with moderate-severe HIE, randomly allocated to hypothermia or normothermia. The primary outcome was death or major sensorineural disability at 2 years. We included infants with arterial pO2 measured within 2 hours of birth. Using a directed acyclic graph, we established that markers of severity of perinatal hypoxia-ischemia and pCO2 were a minimally sufficient set of variables for adjustment in a regression model to estimate the causal relationship between arterial pO2 and death/disability.
Results
Among 221 infants, 116 (56\%) had arterial pO2 and primary outcome data. The unadjusted analysis revealed a U-shaped relationship between arterial pO2 and death or major disability. Among hyperoxemic infants (pO2 100-500 mmHg) the proportion with death or major disability was 40/58 (0.69), while the proportion in normoxemic infants (pO2 40-99 mmHg) was 20/48 (0.42). In the adjusted model, hyperoxemia increased the risk of death or major disability (adjusted risk ratio 1.61, 95\% CI 1.07-2.00, P = .03) in relation to normoxemia.
Conclusion
Early hyperoxemia increased the risk of death or major disability among infants who had an early arterial pO2 in the ICE trial. Limitations include the possibility of residual confounding and other causal biases. Further work is warranted to confirm this relationship in the era of routine therapeutic hypothermia.},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {The Journal of Pediatrics},
	author = {Badurdeen, Shiraz and Cheong, Jeanie L. Y. and Donath, Susan and Graham, Hamish and Hooper, Stuart B. and Polglase, Graeme R. and Jacobs, Sue and Davis, Peter G.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2024},
	keywords = {causal inference, disability, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, oxygen, survival},
	pages = {113902},
	file = {ScienceDirect Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/AK3DMAFP/S0022347624000052.html:text/html},
}

@article{cavalcante_cesarean_2022,
	title = {Cesarean section and body mass index in children: is there a causal effect?},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0102-311X, 1678-4464},
	shorttitle = {Cesarean section and body mass index in children},
	url = {https://www.scielo.br/j/csp/a/5ZmFDBk8gxrbvMdDgYtfKGp/?lang=en},
	doi = {10.1590/0102-311X00344020},
	abstract = {Obesity is considered a global public health problem. Cesarean section has been associated with high body mass index (BMI) and increased obesity throughout life. However, this association has been challenged by some studies. This study aims to assess the causal effect of cesarean section on the BMI of children aged 1-3 years. This is a cohort study of 2,181 children aged 1-3 years, born in 2010, obtained from the BRISA Birth Cohort, in São Luís, state of Maranhão, Brazil. Sociodemographic variables, maternal characteristics, type of childbirth, morbidity, anthropometric measurements, and BMI were assessed. Marginal structural models with a counterfactual approach were used to check the causal effect of the type of childbirth on obesity, weighted by the inverse probability of selection and exposure. Out of the 2,181 children assessed (52\% female), 50.6\% were born by cesarean section, 5.9\% of the newborn infants were large for gestational age, and 10.7\% of them had excess weight. No causal effect of cesarean section on BMI was observed (coefficient = -0.004; 95\%CI: -0.136; 0.127; p = 0.948). Cesarean section did not have a causal effect on the BMI of children aged 1-3 years.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Cadernos de Saúde Pública},
	author = {Cavalcante, Lilian Fernanda Pereira and Carvalho, Carolina Abreu de and Padilha, Luana Lopes and Viola, Poliana Cristina de Almeida Fonseca and Silva, Antônio Augusto Moura da and Simões, Vanda Maria Ferreira},
	month = apr,
	year = {2022},
	note = {Publisher: Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sergio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz},
	keywords = {Body Mass Index, Cesarean Section, Child Obesity},
	pages = {e00344020},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/X5CDSWCU/Cavalcante et al. - 2022 - Cesarean section and body mass index in children .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lederer_control_2019,
	title = {Control of {Confounding} and {Reporting} of {Results} in {Causal} {Inference} {Studies}. {Guidance} for {Authors} from {Editors} of {Respiratory}, {Sleep}, and {Critical} {Care} {Journals}},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {2329-6933},
	url = {https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201808-564PS},
	doi = {10.1513/AnnalsATS.201808-564PS},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {Annals of the American Thoracic Society},
	author = {Lederer, David J. and Bell, Scott C. and Branson, Richard D. and Chalmers, James D. and Marshall, Rachel and Maslove, David M. and Ost, David E. and Punjabi, Naresh M. and Schatz, Michael and Smyth, Alan R. and Stewart, Paul W. and Suissa, Samy and Adjei, Alex A. and Akdis, Cezmi A. and Azoulay, Élie and Bakker, Jan and Ballas, Zuhair K. and Bardin, Philip G. and Barreiro, Esther and Bellomo, Rinaldo and Bernstein, Jonathan A. and Brusasco, Vito and Buchman, Timothy G. and Chokroverty, Sudhansu and Collop, Nancy A. and Crapo, James D. and Fitzgerald, Dominic A. and Hale, Lauren and Hart, Nicholas and Herth, Felix J. and Iwashyna, Theodore J. and Jenkins, Gisli and Kolb, Martin and Marks, Guy B. and Mazzone, Peter and Moorman, J. Randall and Murphy, Thomas M. and Noah, Terry L. and Reynolds, Paul and Riemann, Dieter and Russell, Richard E. and Sheikh, Aziz and Sotgiu, Giovanni and Swenson, Erik R. and Szczesniak, Rhonda and Szymusiak, Ronald and Teboul, Jean-Louis and Vincent, Jean-Louis},
	month = jan,
	year = {2019},
	note = {Publisher: American Thoracic Society - AJRCCM},
	keywords = {causality, confounding factors, epidemiology, research design},
	pages = {22--28},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/4E5PFUYM/Lederer et al. - 2019 - Control of Confounding and Reporting of Results in.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@misc{hartig_mediators_2019,
	title = {Mediators, confounders, colliders – a crash course in causal inference},
	url = {https://theoreticalecology.wordpress.com/2019/04/14/mediators-confounders-colliders-a-crash-course-in-causal-inference/},
	abstract = {Although one would think that the basic concepts of statistics should be the same across all sciences, there is an amazing heterogeneity between fields in how statistics is taught and practiced. On…},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2024-04-29},
	journal = {theoretical ecology},
	author = {Hartig, Florian},
	month = apr,
	year = {2019},
	file = {Snapshot:/home/amy/Zotero/storage/GCH5U9LX/mediators-confounders-colliders-a-crash-course-in-causal-inference.html:text/html},
}